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In many platforms, errors from state-preparation and measurement (SPAM) dominate single-qubit gate errors. To inform further hardware improvements and the development of more effective SPAM mitigation strategies, it is necessary to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-01 Muhammad Qasim Khan , Leigh M. Norris , Lorenza Viola

State preparation and measurement (SPAM) errors limit the performance of many gate-based quantum computing architecures, but are partly correctable after a calibration step that requires, for an exact implementation on a register of $n$…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-07-16 Mingyu Sun , Michael R. Geller

State preparation and measurement errors are commonly regarded as indistinguishable. The problem of distinguishing state preparation (SPAM) errors from measurement errors is important to the field of characterizing quantum processors. In…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-08-17 Raymond Laflamme , Junan Lin , Tal Mor

We present a novel protocol for high-fidelity qubit state preparation and measurement (SPAM) that combines standard SPAM methods with a series of in-sequence measurements to detect and remove errors. The protocol can be applied in any…

State preparation and measurement (SPAM) errors limit the performance of near-term quantum computers and their potential for practical application. SPAM errors are partly correctable after a calibration step that requires, for a complete…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-09-10 Michael R. Geller , Mingyu Sun

Quantum Process Tomography (QPT) is a powerful tool to characterize quantum operations, but it requires considerable resources making it impractical for more than 2-qubit systems. This work proposes an alternative approach that requires…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-05-18 Vicente Leyton-Ortega , Tyler Kharazi , Raphael C. Pooser

Quantum process tomography (QPT), used to estimate the linear map that best describes a quantum operation, is usually performed using a priori assumptions about state preparation and measurement (SPAM), which yield a biased and inconsistent…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-03-14 Robin Blume-Kohout , Kenneth Rudinger , Timothy Proctor

A recurring problem in quantum mechanics is to estimate either the state of a quantum system or the measurement operator applied to it. If we wish to estimate both, then the difficulty is that the state and the measurement always appear…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-06-12 I. D. Moore , S. J. van Enk

Noise affecting qubit preparation and measurements accounts for a significant fraction of errors in quantum information processing. This is especially critical in tasks like variational quantum algorithms, quantum error correction, and…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-08-25 Jaemin Kim , Seungchan Seo , Jiyoung Yun , Benjamin Lienhard , Joonwoo Bae

Accurate and robust quantum process tomography (QPT) is crucial for verifying quantum gates and diagnosing implementation faults in experiments aimed at building universal quantum computers. However, the reliability of QPT protocols is…

We experimentally demonstrate that loop state-preparation-and-measurement (SPAM) tomography is capable of detecting correlated errors in a two-qubit system. We prepare photon pairs in a state that approximates a Werner state, which may or…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-07-11 M. E. Feldman , G. K. Juul , S. J. Van Enk , M. Beck

Quantum tomography is currently ubiquitous for testing any implementation of a quantum information processing device. Various sophisticated procedures for state and process reconstruction from measured data are well developed and benefit…

We have performed an experiment demonstrating that loop state-preparation-and-measurement (SPAM) tomography [C. Jackson and S. J. van Enk, Phys. Rev. A 92, 042312 (2015)] is capable of detecting correlated errors between the preparation and…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2017-04-21 A. F. McCormick , S. J. van Enk , M. Beck

Current noisy quantum computers have multiple types of errors, which can occur in the state preparation, measurement/readout, and gate operation, as well as intrinsic decoherence and relaxation. Partly motivated by the booming of…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-05-07 Hongye Yu , Tzu-Chieh Wei

Noise is a major challenge for building practical quantum computing systems. Precise characterization of quantum noise is crucial for developing effective error mitigation and correction schemes. However, state preparation and measurement…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-07-15 Senrui Chen , Akel Hashim , Noah Goss , Alireza Seif , Irfan Siddiqi , Liang Jiang

Characterizing temporally correlated (``non-Markovian'') noise is a key prerequisite for achieving noise-tailored error mitigation and optimal device performance. Quantum noise spectroscopy can afford quantitative estimation of the noise…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-09-12 Muhammad Qasim Khan , Wenzheng Dong , Leigh M. Norris , Lorenza Viola

Building high-fidelity quantum computers requires efficient methods for the characterization of gate errors that provide actionable information that may be fed back into engineering efforts. Extraction of realistic error models is also…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-02-28 Jeffrey M. Epstein

The rapid advancement of quantum hardware necessitates the development of reliable methods to certify its correct functioning. However, existing certification tests fall short, as they either suffer from systematic errors or do not…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-08-13 Jan Nöller , Nikolai Miklin , Martin Kliesch , Mariami Gachechiladze

In this work, we demonstrate that the zero-fidelity, an approximation to the process fidelity, when combined with randomized benchmarking, becomes robust to state preparation and measurement (SPAM) errors. However, as randomized…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-12-22 Yu-Hao Chen , Renata Wong , Hsi-Sheng Goan

Whereas in standard quantum state tomography one estimates an unknown state by performing various measurements with known devices, and whereas in detector tomography one estimates the POVM elements of a measurement device by subjecting to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2016-08-10 Christopher Jackson , S. J. van Enk
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