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Automated short answer grading (ASAG) is critical for scaling educational assessment, yet large language models (LLMs) often struggle with hallucinations and strict rubric adherence due to their reliance on generalized pre-training. While…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-23 Yucheng Chu , Haoyu Han , Shen Dong , Hang Li , Kaiqi Yang , Yasemin Copur-Gencturk , Joseph Krajcik , Namsoo Shin , Hui Liu

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to automate student assessment in education. Among different types of assessments, summative assessments play a crucial role in evaluating a student's…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-24 Dishank Aggarwal , Pritam Sil , Bhaskaran Raman , Pushpak Bhattacharyya

Every four years, the PISA test is administered by the OECD to test the knowledge of teenage students worldwide and allow for comparisons of educational systems. However, having to avoid language differences and annotator bias makes the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-01 Pavel Šindelář , Dávid Slivka , Christopher Bouma , Filip Prášil , Ondřej Bojar

Automated short answer grading (ASAG) with large language models (LLMs) is commonly evaluated with aggregate metrics such as macro-F1 and Cohen's kappa. However, these metrics provide limited insight into how grading performance varies…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-14 Longwei Cong , Sonja Hahn , Sebastian Gombert , Leon Camus , Hendrik Drachsler , Ulf Kroehne

We introduce a new area of study in the field of educational Natural Language Processing: Automated Long Answer Grading (ALAG). Distinguishing itself from Automated Short Answer Grading (ASAG) and Automated Essay Grading (AEG), ALAG…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-23 Shashank Sonkar , Kangqi Ni , Lesa Tran Lu , Kristi Kincaid , John S. Hutchinson , Richard G. Baraniuk

Open-ended questions, which require students to produce multi-word, nontrivial responses, are a popular tool for formative assessment as they provide more specific insights into what students do and don't know. However, grading open-ended…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-07 Owen Henkel , Libby Hills , Bill Roberts , Joshua McGrane

Short answer assessment is a vital component of science education, allowing evaluation of students' complex three-dimensional understanding. Large language models (LLMs) that possess human-like ability in linguistic tasks are increasingly…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-05 Yucheng Chu , Peng He , Hang Li , Haoyu Han , Kaiqi Yang , Yu Xue , Tingting Li , Joseph Krajcik , Jiliang Tang

Automated Short Answer Grading (ASAG) has been an active area of machine-learning research for over a decade. It promises to let educators grade and give feedback on free-form responses in large-enrollment courses in spite of limited…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-09-19 Gerd Kortemeyer

Automatic Short Answer Grading (ASAG) is the process of grading the student answers by computational approaches given a question and the desired answer. Previous works implemented the methods of concept mapping, facet mapping, and some used…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-09-04 Sasi Kiran Gaddipati , Deebul Nair , Paul G. Plöger

The rise of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, particularly large language models (LLMs), has brought significant advancements to the field of education. Among various applications, automatic short answer grading (ASAG), which…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-02 Yucheng Chu , Hang Li , Kaiqi Yang , Yasemin Copur-Gencturk , Jiliang Tang

Subjective Answer Grading (SAG) plays a crucial role in education, standardized testing, and automated assessment systems, particularly for evaluating short-form responses in Short Answer Scoring (SAS). However, existing approaches often…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-16 Peichao Lai , Kexuan Zhang , Yi Lin , Linyihan Zhang , Feiyang Ye , Jinhao Yan , Yanwei Xu , Conghui He , Yilei Wang , Wentao Zhang , Bin Cui

Automated Short Answer Scoring (ASAS) is a critical component in educational assessment. While traditional ASAS systems relied on rule-based algorithms or complex deep learning methods, recent advancements in Generative Language Models…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-08-08 Zifan Wang , Christopher Ormerod

Automatic essay grading (AEG) has attracted the the attention of the NLP community because of its applications to several educational applications, such as scoring essays, short answers, etc. AEG systems can save significant time and money…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-15 Maisha Maliha , Vishal Pramanik

Automated Short Answer Scoring (SAS) is the task of automatically scoring a given input to a prompt based on rubrics and reference answers. Although SAS is useful in real-world applications, both rubrics and reference answers differ between…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-08-27 Hiroaki Funayama , Yuya Asazuma , Yuichiroh Matsubayashi , Tomoya Mizumoto , Kentaro Inui

Short answer scoring (SAS) is the task of grading short text written by a learner. In recent years, deep-learning-based approaches have substantially improved the performance of SAS models, but how to guarantee high-quality predictions…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-06-17 Hiroaki Funayama , Tasuku Sato , Yuichiroh Matsubayashi , Tomoya Mizumoto , Jun Suzuki , Kentaro Inui

Automatic essay grading (AEG) is a process in which machines assign a grade to an essay written in response to a topic, called the prompt. Zero-shot AEG is when we train a system to grade essays written to a new prompt which was not present…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-02-23 Sandeep Mathias , Rudra Murthy , Diptesh Kanojia , Pushpak Bhattacharyya

Automated short answer scoring (ASAS) is shifting from discriminative, fine-tuned models to large language models (LLMs) used in few-shot settings. This paradigm leverages LLMs broad world knowledge and ease of deployment, but limited…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Abigail Victoria Gurin Schleifer , Moriah Ariely , Beata Beigman Klebanov , Asaf Salman , Giora Alexandron

This paper presents methods for improving automated essay scoring with techniques that address the computational trade-offs of self-attention and document length. To make Automated Essay Scoring (AES) more useful to practitioners,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-12-23 Mike Hardy

Automated Text Scoring (ATS) provides a cost-effective and consistent alternative to human marking. However, in order to achieve good performance, the predictive features of the system need to be manually engineered by human experts. We…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2017-07-18 Dimitrios Alikaniotis , Helen Yannakoudakis , Marek Rei

In education, the traditional Automatic Short Answer Grading (ASAG) with feedback problem has focused primarily on evaluating text-only responses. However, real-world assessments often include multimodal responses containing both diagrams…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-06 Pritam Sil , Pushpak Bhattacharyya , Pawan Goyal , Ganesh Ramakrishnan