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Meaningful scores for forecast verification are essential for developing reliable forecasts, and there has been much effort to develop scores that align well with human perceptions of forecast quality. Whilst many of these scores have…

Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics · Physics 2026-03-17 Bobby Antonio

A scoring system is a simple decision model that checks a set of features, adds a certain number of points to a total score for each feature that is satisfied, and finally makes a decision by comparing the total score to a threshold.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-08-01 Jonas Hanselle , Stefan Heid , Johannes Fürnkranz , Eyke Hüllermeier

Proper scoring rules have been a subject of growing interest in recent years, not only as tools for evaluation of probabilistic forecasts but also as methods for estimating probability distributions. In this article, we review the…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2026-05-12 Kartik Waghmare , Johanna Ziegel

Verifying probabilistic forecasts for extreme events is a highly active research area because popular media and public opinions are naturally focused on extreme events, and biased conclusions are readily made. In this context, classical…

Multivariate probabilistic time series forecasts are commonly evaluated via proper scoring rules, i.e., functions that are minimal in expectation for the ground-truth distribution. However, this property is not sufficient to guarantee good…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-07 Étienne Marcotte , Valentina Zantedeschi , Alexandre Drouin , Nicolas Chapados

We provide methods to validate and compare sensor outputs, or inference algorithms applied to sensor data, by adapting statistical scoring rules. The reported output should either be in the form of a prediction interval or of a parameter…

Data Analysis, Statistics and Probability · Physics 2015-07-07 A. D. Martin , T. C. A. Molteno , M. Parry

In the face of uncertainty, the need for probabilistic assessments has long been recognized in the literature on forecasting. In classification, however, comparative evaluation of classifiers often focuses on predictions specifying a single…

Methodology · Statistics 2023-05-31 Johannes Resin

Football forecasting models traditionally rate teams on past match results, that is based on the number of goals scored. Goals, however, involve a high element of chance and thus past results often do not reflect the performances of the…

Applications · Statistics 2021-01-07 Edward Wheatcroft , Ewelina Sienkiewicz

Probabilistic forecasting relies on past observations to provide a probability distribution for a future outcome, which is often evaluated against the realization using a scoring rule. Here, we perform probabilistic forecasting with…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-03-06 Lorenzo Pacchiardi , Rilwan Adewoyin , Peter Dueben , Ritabrata Dutta

Proper scoring rules are an essential tool to assess the predictive performance of probabilistic forecasts. However, propriety alone does not ensure an informative characterization of predictive performance and it is recommended to compare…

Methodology · Statistics 2025-03-14 Romain Pic , Clément Dombry , Philippe Naveau , Maxime Taillardat

Accurately forecasting the probability distribution of phenomena of interest is a classic and ever more widespread goal in statistics and decision theory. In comparison to point forecasts, probabilistic forecasts aim to provide a more…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2025-05-05 Erez Buchweitz , João Vitor Romano , Ryan J. Tibshirani

Models in which the number of goals scored by a team in a soccer match follow a Poisson distribution, or a closely related one, have been widely discussed. We here consider a soccer match as an experiment to assess which of two teams is…

Physics and Society · Physics 2009-09-29 G. K. Skinner , G. H. Freeman

The classical paradigm of scoring rules is to discriminate between two different forecasts by comparing them with observations. The probability distribution of the observed record is assumed to be perfect as a verification benchmark. In…

Methodology · Statistics 2021-08-06 Julie Bessac , Philippe Naveau

A myriad of different data are generated to characterize a soccer match. Here we discuss which performance indicators are particularly helpful to forecast the future results of a team via an estimation of the underlying team strengths with…

Physics and Society · Physics 2020-03-10 Andreas Heuer

To assess the quality of a probabilistic prediction for stochastic dynamical systems (SDSs), scoring rules assign a numerical score based on the predictive distribution and the measured state. In this paper, we propose an…

Information Theory · Computer Science 2025-04-25 Tao Xu , Yushan Li , Jianping He

Estimating win probability is one of the classic modeling tasks of sports analytics. Many widely used win probability estimators use machine learning to fit the relationship between a binary win/loss outcome variable and certain game-state…

Methodology · Statistics 2025-08-21 Ryan S. Brill , Ronald Yurko , Abraham J. Wyner

We provide self-contained proof of a theorem relating probabilistic coherence of forecasts to their non-domination by rival forecasts with respect to any proper scoring rule. The theorem appears to be new but is closely related to results…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2016-11-15 Joel Predd , Robert Seiringer , Elliott H. Lieb , Daniel Osherson , Vincent Poor , Sanjeev Kulkarni

The recent developments in the machine learning domain have enabled the development of complex multivariate probabilistic forecasting models. Therefore, it is pivotal to have a precise evaluation method to gauge the performance and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-01 Alireza Koochali , Peter Schichtel , Andreas Dengel , Sheraz Ahmed

Survival analysis is the problem of estimating probability distributions for future event times, which can be seen as a problem in uncertainty quantification. Although there are fundamental theories on strictly proper scoring rules for…

Methodology · Statistics 2023-06-13 Hiroki Yanagisawa

The availability of massive data about sports activities offers nowadays the opportunity to quantify the relation between performance and success. In this study, we analyze more than 6,000 games and 10 million events in six European leagues…

Applications · Statistics 2017-11-17 Luca Pappalardo , Paolo Cintia