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Solidity smart contracts are programs that manage up to 2^160 users on a blockchain. Verifying a smart contract relative to all users is intractable due to state explosion. Existing solutions either restrict the number of users to…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2021-09-02 Scott Wesley , Maria Christakis , Jorge A. Navas , Richard Trefler , Valentin Wüstholz , Arie Gurfinkel

A bug or error is a common problem that any software or computer program may encounter. It can occur from badly writing the program, a typing error or bad memory management. However, errors can become a significant issue if the unsafe…

Programming Languages · Computer Science 2019-08-29 Zeinab Nehai , François Bobot

Large language models (LLMs) have transformed code generation. However, most existing approaches focus on mainstream languages such as Python and Java, neglecting the Solidity language, the predominant programming language for Ethereum…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-08-27 Zhiyuan Peng , Xin Yin , Rui Qian , Peiqin Lin , Yongkang Liu , Hao Zhang , Chenhao Ying , Yuan Luo

Decentralized finance (DeFi) has become one of the most successful applications of blockchain and smart contracts. The DeFi ecosystem enables a wide range of crypto-financial activities, while the underlying smart contracts often contain…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-04-20 Palina Tolmach , Yi Li , Shang-Wei Lin , Yang Liu

The correctness of the Solidity compiler is crucial for ensuring the security of smart contracts. However, the implementation complexity of its type system often introduces elusive defects. This paper presents the first systematic empirical…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-12-23 Lantian Li , Yue Pan , Dan Wang , Jingwen Wu , Zhongxing Yu

Blockchains are modern distributed systems that provide decentralized financial capabilities with trustable guarantees. Smart contracts are programs written in specialized programming languages running on a blockchain and govern how tokens…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-07-11 Margarita Capretto , Martin Ceresa , Cesar Sanchez

A smart contract is a digital program of transaction protocol (rules of contract) based on the consensus architecture of blockchain. Smart contracts with Blockchain are modern technologies that have gained enormous attention in scientific…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2023-02-17 Norah M. Alshahrani , M. L. Mat Kiah , B. B. Zaidan , A. H. Alamoodi , Abdu Saif

We introduce SmartEval, a benchmark for systematically evaluating the quality of Solidity smart contracts generated by large language models (LLMs) from natural language specifications. SmartEval provides a corpus of 9,000 generated…

Multiagent Systems · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Abhinav Goel , Agostino Capponi , Alfio Gliozzo , Chaitya Shah

Smart contracts are programs that manage digital assets according to a certain protocol, expressing for instance the rules of an auction. Understanding the possible behaviors of a smart contract is difficult, which complicates development,…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2018-07-23 Florentin Guth , Valentin Wüstholz , Maria Christakis , Peter Müller

With the increasing adoption of smart contracts, ensuring their security has become a critical concern. Numerous vulnerabilities and attacks have been identified and exploited, resulting in significant financial losses. In response,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-08-13 Zhiyuan Wei , Jing Sun , Zijian Zhang , Xianhao Zhang , Xiaoxuan Yang , Liehuang Zhu

Nowadays, more and more applications are developed for running on a distributed ledger technology, namely dApps. The business logic of dApps is usually implemented within smart contracts developed through Solidity, a programming language…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2021-12-16 Andrea Di Sorbo , Sonia Laudanna , Anna Vacca , Corrado A. Visaggio , Gerardo Canfora

The irreversible nature of blockchain transactions makes the identification of smart contract vulnerabilities an essential requirement for secure system development. While Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly integrated into…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-13 Stefan-Claudiu Susan , Andrei Arusoaie , Dorel Lucanu

Ethereum Smart contracts use blockchain to transfer values among peers on networks without central agency. These programs are deployed on decentralized applications running on top of the blockchain consensus protocol to enable people to…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-05-10 Noama Fatima Samreen , Manar H. Alalfi

Smart contracts play a central role in blockchain systems by encoding financial and operational logic. Still, their susceptibility to subtle security flaws poses significant risks of financial loss and erosion of trust. LLMs create new…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Eduardo Sardenberg , Antonio José Grandson Busson , Daniel de Sousa Moraes , Julio Cesar Duarte , Sérgio Colcher

Smart contracts are self-executing programs on a blockchain to ensure immutable and transparent agreements without the involvement of intermediaries. Despite the growing popularity of smart contracts for many blockchain platforms like…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2023-03-27 Taeyoung Kim , Yunhee Jang , Chanjong Lee , Hyungjoon Koo , Hyoungshick Kim

We propose a novel framework for off-chain execution and verification of computationally-intensive smart contracts. Our framework is the first solution that avoids duplication of computing effort across multiple contractors, does not…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-04-27 Emrah Sariboz , Kartick Kolachala , Gaurav Panwar , Roopa Vishwanathan , Satyajayant Misra

Vyper has been proposed as a new high-level language for Ethereum smart contract development due to numerous security vulnerabilities and attacks witnessed on contracts written in Solidity since the system's inception. Vyper aims to address…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2020-06-16 Mudabbir Kaleem , Anastasia Mavridou , Aron Laszka

A smart grid is an important application in Industry 4.0 with a lot of new technologies and equipment working together. Hence, sensitive data stored in the smart grid is vulnerable to malicious modification and theft. This paper proposes a…

Solidity, the dominant smart contract language for Ethereum, has rapidly evolved with frequent version updates to enhance security, functionality, and developer experience. However, these continual changes introduce significant challenges,…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-08-15 Likai Ye , Mengliang Li , Dehai Zhao , Jiamou Sun , Xiaoxue Ren

Modern mathematics is built on the idea that proofs should be translatable into formal proofs, whose validity is an objective question, decidable by a computer. Yet, in practice, proofs are informal and may omit many details. An agent…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2021-10-14 Sylvain Carré , Franck Gabriel , Clément Hongler , Gustavo Lacerda , Gloria Capano