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Cryptocurrencies redefined how money can be stored and transferred among users. However, independent of the amount being sent, public blockchain-based cryptocurrencies suffer from high transaction waiting times and fees. These drawbacks…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-02-05 Enes Erdin , Suat Mercan , Kemal Akkaya

Privacy protection mechanisms are a fundamental aspect of security in cryptocurrency systems, particularly in decentralized networks such as Bitcoin. Although Bitcoin addresses are not directly associated with real-world identities, this…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-19 Shihan Zhang , Bing Han , Chuanyong Tian , Ruisheng Shi , Lina Lan , Qin Wang

Bitcoin is a decentralized, pseudonymous cryptocurrency that is one of the most used digital assets to date. Its unregulated nature and inherent anonymity of users have led to a dramatic increase in its use for illicit activities. This…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-10-16 Francesco Zola , Maria Eguimendia , Jan Lukas Bruse , Raul Orduna Urrutia

Bitcoin has created a new exchange paradigm within which financial transactions can be trusted without an intermediary. This premise of a free decentralized transactional network however requires, in its current implementation, unrestricted…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2018-10-30 Marc Jourdan , Sebastien Blandin , Laura Wynter , Pralhad Deshpande

There is growing interest in providing programmatic access to the value locked in Bitcoin, which famously offers limited programmability itself. Various approaches have been put forth in recent years, with the vast majority of proposed…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2025-06-30 Ryan Croote , Islam El-Ashi , Thomas Locher , Yvonne-Anne Pignolet

Despite growing adoption of cryptocurrencies, making fast payments at scale remains a challenge. Payment channel networks (PCNs) such as the Lightning Network have emerged as a viable scaling solution. However, completing payments on PCNs…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2020-03-24 Vibhaalakshmi Sivaraman , Shaileshh Bojja Venkatakrishnan , Kathy Ruan , Parimarjan Negi , Lei Yang , Radhika Mittal , Mohammad Alizadeh , Giulia Fanti

Blockchains are typically managed by peer-to-peer (P2P) networks providing the support and substrate to the so-called distributed ledger (DLT), a replicated, shared, and synchronized data structure, geographically spread across multiple…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2020-11-30 Sami Ben Mariem , Pedro Casas , Matteo Romiti , Benoit Donnet , Rainer Stütz , Bernhard Haslhofer

We propose a bitcoin generalization as a solution to the problem of scalability. The block is redefined as a sequence of sub-blocks of increasing sizes that coexist as different levels of compromise between decentralization and transactions…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2018-05-15 Santi J. Vives

We introduce Bitcoin-IPC, a software stack and protocol that scales Bitcoin towards helping it become the universal Medium of Exchange (MoE) by enabling the permissionless creation of fully programmable Proof-of-Stake (PoS) Layer-2 chains,…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Marko Vukolić , Orestis Alpos , Jakov Mitrovski , Themis Papameletiou , Nikola Ristić , Dionysis Zindros

In this paper, we explore the partitioning attacks on the Bitcoin network, which is shown to exhibit spatial bias, and temporal and logical diversity. Through data-driven study we highlight: 1) the centralization of Bitcoin nodes across…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2019-02-12 Muhammad Saad , Victor Cook , Lan Nguyen , My T. Thai , Aziz Mohaisen

The application of Bitcoin enables people to understand blockchain technology gradually. Bitcoin is a decentralized currency that does not rely on third-party credit institutions, and the core of Bitcoin's underlying technology is…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-04-15 Yuhuan Yang , Shipeng Ye , Xiaoqi Li

Decentralized payment systems such as Bitcoin have become massively popular in the last few years, yet there is still much to be done in understanding their formal properties. The vast majority of decentralized payment systems work by…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2022-06-22 Thomas Orton

Hashed Timelock Contract (HTLC) in Lightning Network is susceptible to a griefing attack. An attacker can block several channels and stall payments by mounting this attack. A state-of-the-art countermeasure, Hashed Timelock Contract with…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-12-21 Subhra Mazumdar , Prabal Banerjee , Abhinandan Sinha , Sushmita Ruj , Bimal Roy

The Bitcoin protocol prevents the occurrence of double-spending (DS), i.e. the utilization of the same currency unit more than once. At the same time a DS attack, where more conflicting transactions are generated, might be performed to…

Physics and Society · Physics 2018-09-21 Marco Alberto Javarone , Craig Steven Wright

Today's world is organized based on merit and value. A single global currency that's decentralized is needed for a global economy. Bitcoin is a partial solution to this need, however it suffers from scalability problems which prevent it…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2020-10-29 Iurii Shyshatsky , Vinod Manoharan , Taras Emelyanenko , Lucas Leger

Layer-2 (L2) protocols address the fundamental limitations of Layer-1 (L1) blockchains by offloading computation while anchoring trust to the parent chain. This architectural shift, while boosting throughput, introduces a new, complex…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-24 Ekleen Kaur , Marko Suvajdzic

The cross-blockchain transaction remains one of the most challenging problems in blockchains. The root cause of the challenge lies in the nondeterministic nature of blockchains: A $n$-party transaction across multiple blockchains might be…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2020-04-17 Dongfang Zhao

Interoperability and scalability are currently the bottlenecks preventing mass adoption of blockchain technology. Development of an interoperable and scalable network that promotes a truly decentralised, permissionless and secure blockchain…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2021-10-05 Kevin Coutinho , Ponnie Clark , Ferdinand Azis , Norman Lip , Josh Hunt

Cryptocurrency users increasingly rely on obfuscation techniques such as mixers, swappers, and decentralised or no-KYC exchanges to protect their anonymity. However, at the same time, these services are exploited by criminals to conceal and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-04-17 Francesco Zola , Jon Ander Medina , Andrea Venturi , Raul Orduna

Blockchain technology is ushering in another break-out year, the challenge of blockchain still remains to be solved. This paper analyzes the features of Bitcoin and Bitcoin-NG system based on blockchain, proposes an improved method of…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2018-11-01 Jia Kan , Shangzhe Chen , Xin Huang