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We present a new way of embedding functional languages into the Coq proof assistant by using meta-programming. This allows us to develop the meta-theory of the language using the deep embedding and provides a convenient way for reasoning…

Programming Languages · Computer Science 2020-02-05 Danil Annenkov , Jakob Botsch Nielsen , Bas Spitters

Blockchain platforms such as Ethereum and several others execute complex transactions in blocks through user-defined scripts known as smart contracts. To append a correct block into blockchain, miners execute these transactions of smart…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2019-01-15 Parwat Singh Anjana , Sweta Kumari , Sathya Peri , Sachin Rathor , Archit Somani

Context: Smart contract vulnerabilities pose significant security risks for the Ethereum ecosystem, driving the development of automated tools for detection and mitigation. Smart contracts are written in Solidity, a programming language…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-04-09 Gerardo Iuliano , Davide Corradini , Michele Pasqua , Mariano Ceccato , Dario Di Nucci

The use of blockchain and smart contracts have not stopped growing in recent years. Like all software that begins to expand its use, it is also beginning to be targeted by hackers who will try to exploit vulnerabilities in both the…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-02-07 Antonio López Vivar , Ana Lucila Sandoval Orozco , Luis Javier García Villalba

As a blockchain platform that has developed vigorously in recent years, Ethereum is different from Bitcoin in that it introduces smart contracts into blockchain.Solidity is one of the most mature and widely used smart contract programming…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2019-11-25 Pengcheng Zhang , Feng Xiao , Xiapu Luo

Formal verification of smart contracts has become a hot topic in academic and industrial research, given the growing value of assets managed by decentralized applications and the consequent incentive for adversaries to tamper with them.…

Logic in Computer Science · Computer Science 2024-02-19 Massimo Bartoletti , Fabio Fioravanti , Giulia Matricardi , Roberto Pettinau , Franco Sainas

We present an overview of hybrid Casper the Friendly Finality Gadget (FFG): a Proof-of-Stake checkpointing protocol overlaid onto Ethereum's Proof-of-Work blockchain. We describe its core functionalities and reward scheme, and explore its…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2021-07-20 Vitalik Buterin , Daniel Reijsbergen , Stefanos Leonardos , Georgios Piliouras

Ethereum smart contracts are executable programs, deployed on a peer-to-peer network and executed in a consensus-based fashion. Their bytecode is public, immutable and once deployed to the blockchain, cannot be patched anymore. As smart…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2019-07-10 Konrad Weiss , Julian Schütte

Smart contracts are Turing-complete programs that execute on the infrastructure of the blockchain, which often manage valuable digital assets. Solidity is one of the most popular programming languages for writing smart contracts on the…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2020-04-21 Tai D. Nguyen , Long H. Pham , Jun Sun , Yun Lin , Quang Tran Minh

The emergence of blockchain technology has revolutionized contract execution through the introduction of smart contracts. Ethereum, the leading blockchain platform, leverages smart contracts to power decentralized applications (DApps),…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-23 Tahrim Hossain , Sakib Hassan , Faisal Haque Bappy , Muhammad Nur Yanhaona , Tarannum Shaila Zaman , Tariqul Islam

Compiler correctness is an old problem, but with the emergence of smart contracts on blockchains that problem presents itself in a new light. Smart contracts are self-contained pieces of software that control assets, which are often of high…

Programming Languages · Computer Science 2022-02-23 Jacco O. G. Krijnen , Manuel M. T. Chakravarty , Gabriele Keller , Wouter Swierstra

The widespread lack of broad source code verification on blockchain explorers such as Etherscan, where despite 78,047,845 smart contracts deployed on Ethereum (as of May 26, 2025), a mere 767,520 (< 1%) are open source, presents a severe…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-25 Isaac David , Liyi Zhou , Dawn Song , Arthur Gervais , Kaihua Qin

The Ethereum platform supports the decentralized execution of smart contracts, i.e. computer programs that transfer digital assets between users. The most common language used to develop these contracts is Solidity, a Javascript-like…

Programming Languages · Computer Science 2019-08-08 Massimo Bartoletti , Letterio Galletta , Maurizio Murgia

Due to regulatory compliance and governance management, modern (permissioned) blockchains require flexible endorsement, which allows the endorsement policy for each contract or state object to be individually defined. To enable flexible…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2026-05-01 Rongji Huang , Yifeng Ye , Gerui Wang , Mingchao Wan , Yuxing Duan , Jingjing Zhang , Guangtao Xue , Shengyun Liu

The rise of decentralized applications (dApps) has made smart contracts imperative components of blockchain technology. As many smart contracts process financial transactions, their security is paramount. Moreover, the immutability of…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2024-07-24 Khalid Hassan , Saeed Moradi , Shaiful Chowdhury , Sara Rouhani

Recently, a number of existing blockchain systems have witnessed major bugs and vulnerabilities within smart contracts. Although the literature features a number of proposals for securing smart contracts, these proposals mostly focus on…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2018-12-17 Michael Rodler , Wenting Li , Ghassan O. Karame , Lucas Davi

Smart contracts have been increasingly used together with blockchains to automate financial and business transactions. However, many bugs and vulnerabilities have been identified in many contracts which raises serious concerns about smart…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2020-05-21 Zhipeng Gao , Lingxiao Jiang , Xin Xia , David Lo , John Grundy

The evaluation of smart contract reputability is essential to foster trust in decentralized ecosystems. However, existing methods that rely solely on code analysis or transactional data, offer limited insight into evolving trustworthiness.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-01 Cyrus Malik , Josef Bajada , Joshua Ellul

We introduce the DeTerministic Virtual Machine (DTVM) Stack, a next-generation smart contract execution framework designed to address critical performance, determinism, and ecosystem compatibility challenges in blockchain networks. Building…

Smart contract security has progressed from vulnerability detection toward a broader research agenda that includes semantic reasoning, automated repair, adversarial robustness, and real-time exploit detection. This paper develops a…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Tamer Abdelaziz