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The clustering and visualisation of high-dimensional data is a ubiquitous task in modern data science. Popular techniques include nonlinear dimensionality reduction methods like t-SNE or UMAP. These methods face the `scale-problem' of…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-10-20 Jack Kendrick

TSNE and UMAP are two of the most popular dimensionality reduction algorithms due to their speed and interpretable low-dimensional embeddings. However, while attempts have been made to improve on TSNE's computational complexity, no existing…

Most popular dimension reduction (DR) methods like t-SNE and UMAP are based on minimizing a cost between input and latent pairwise similarities. Though widely used, these approaches lack clear probabilistic foundations to enable a full…

Probability · Mathematics 2023-10-06 Hugues Van Assel , Thibault Espinasse , Julien Chiquet , Franck Picard

Dimensionality reduction methods such as t-SNE and UMAP are popular methods for visualizing data with a potential (latent) clustered structure. They are known to group data points at the same time as they embed them, resulting in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-04 Elizabeth Coda , Ery Arias-Castro , Gal Mishne

$t$-SNE is an embedding method that the data science community has widely Two interesting characteristics of t-SNE are the structure preservation property and the answer to the crowding problem, where all neighbors in high dimensional space…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-23 Gaëlle Candel , David Naccache

Dimensional data reduction methods are fundamental to explore and visualize large data sets. Basic requirements for unsupervised data exploration are simplicity, flexibility and scalability. However, current methods show complex…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-03 Joan Garriga , Frederic Bartumeus

Misuses of t-SNE and UMAP in visual analytics have become increasingly common. For example, although t-SNE and UMAP projections often do not faithfully reflect the original distances between clusters, practitioners frequently use them to…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2025-10-02 Hyeon Jeon , Jeongin Park , Sungbok Shin , Jinwook Seo

Deep representation learning using triplet network for classification suffers from a lack of theoretical foundation and difficulty in tuning both the network and classifiers for performance. To address the problem, local-margin triplet loss…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-11-20 Phawis Thammasorn , Daniel Hippe , Wanpracha Chaovalitwongse , Matthew Spraker , Landon Wootton , Matthew Nyflot , Stephanie Combs , Jan Peeken , Eric Ford

Dimensionality Reduction (DR) techniques can generate 2D projections and enable visual exploration of cluster structures of high-dimensional datasets. However, different DR techniques would yield various patterns, which significantly affect…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2021-10-07 Jiazhi Xia , Yuchen Zhang , Jie Song , Yang Chen , Yunhai Wang , Shixia Liu

With the recent surge in big data analytics for hyper-dimensional data there is a renewed interest in dimensionality reduction techniques for machine learning applications. In order for these methods to improve performance gains and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-01-20 J. Derek Tucker , Matthew T. Martinez , Jose M. Laborde

Dimensionality reduction (DR) is characterized by two longstanding trade-offs. First, there is a global-local preservation tension: methods such as t-SNE and UMAP prioritize local neighborhood preservation, yet may distort global manifold…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-06 Zeyang Huang , Angelos Chatzimparmpas , Thomas Höllt , Takanori Fujiwara

It has become standard to use gradient-based dimensionality reduction (DR) methods like tSNE and UMAP when explaining what AI models have learned. This makes sense: these methods are fast, robust, and have an uncanny ability to find…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-17 Andrew Draganov , Simon Dohn

Selecting the appropriate dimensionality reduction (DR) technique and determining its optimal hyperparameter settings that maximize the accuracy of the output projections typically involves extensive trial and error, often resulting in…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Hyeon Jeon , Jeongin Park , Soohyun Lee , Dae Hyun Kim , Sungbok Shin , Jinwook Seo

High-dimensional imaging is becoming increasingly relevant in many fields from astronomy and cultural heritage to systems biology. Visual exploration of such high-dimensional data is commonly facilitated by dimensionality reduction.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-08-04 Alexander Vieth , Anna Vilanova , Boudewijn Lelieveldt , Elmar Eisemann , Thomas Höllt

Dimensionality reduction is crucial both for visualization and preprocessing high dimensional data for machine learning. We introduce a novel method based on a hierarchy built on 1-nearest neighbor graphs in the original space which is used…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-05-31 M. Saquib Sarfraz , Marios Koulakis , Constantin Seibold , Rainer Stiefelhagen

Due to the intrinsic complexity of high-dimensional (HD) data, dimensionality reduction (DR) techniques cannot preserve all the structural characteristics of the original data. Therefore, DR techniques focus on preserving either local…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-18 Hyeon Jeon , Kwon Ko , Soohyun Lee , Jake Hyun , Taehyun Yang , Gyehun Go , Jaemin Jo , Jinwook Seo

Feature representation is an important aspect of remote-sensing based image classification. While deep convolutional neural networks are able to effectively amalgamate information, large numbers of parameters often make learned features…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-07 Joshua Peeples , Sarah Walker , Connor McCurley , Alina Zare , James Keller , Weihuang Xu

t-SNE has gained popularity as a dimension reduction technique, especially for visualizing data. It is well-known that all dimension reduction techniques may lose important features of the data. We provide a mathematical framework for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-16 Rupert Li , Elchanan Mossel

Dimension reduction, widely used in science, maps high-dimensional data into low-dimensional space. We investigate a basic mathematical model underlying the techniques of stochastic neighborhood embedding (SNE) and its popular variant…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-03-26 Ben Weinkove

t-distributed Stochastic Neighborhood Embedding (t-SNE) is a method for dimensionality reduction and visualization that has become widely popular in recent years. Efficient implementations of t-SNE are available, but they scale poorly to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-02-26 George C. Linderman , Manas Rachh , Jeremy G. Hoskins , Stefan Steinerberger , Yuval Kluger