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We review theory of information thermodynamics which incorporates effects of measurement and feedback into nonequilibrium thermodynamics of a small system, and discuss how the second law of thermodynamics should be extended for such…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2012-02-07 Takahiro Sagawa , Masahito Ueda

The emerging field of quantum thermodynamics is beginning to reveal the intriguing role that information can play in quantum thermal engines. Information enters as a resource when considering feedback-controlled thermal machines. While both…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-05-13 Lindsay Bassman Oftelie , Michele Campisi

A theory of feedback controlled heat transport in quantum systems is presented. It is based on modelling heat engines as driven multipartite systems subject to projective quantum measurements and measurement-conditioned unitary evolutions.…

Mesoscale and Nanoscale Physics · Physics 2017-05-29 Michele Campisi , Jukka Pekola , Rosario Fazio

There have been two distinct formalisms of thermodynamics of information: One is the measurement-feedback formalism, which concerns bipartite systems with measurement and feedback processes, and the other is the information reservoir…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2016-01-27 Naoto Shiraishi , Takumi Matsumoto , Takahiro Sagawa

We consider open quantum systems weakly coupled to thermal reservoirs and subjected to quantum feedback operations triggered with or without delay by monitored quantum jumps. We establish a thermodynamic description of such system and…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2015-06-16 Philipp Strasberg , Gernot Schaller , Tobias Brandes , Massimiliano Esposito

We study the thermodynamic properties induced by non-reciprocal interactions between stochastic degrees of freedom in time- and space-continuous systems. We show that, under fairly general conditions, non-reciprocal coupling alone implies a…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2021-04-29 Sarah A. M. Loos , Sabine H. L. Klapp

A finite cycle time information engine based on a two-level system in contact with a thermal reservoir is studied analytically. The model for the engine incorporates an error in measuring the system's state and time delay between the…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2024-05-13 Kiran V , Toby Joseph

The laws of thermodynamics are a cornerstone for describing nanoscale and open quantum systems. However, formulating these laws for systems under continuous feedback control and under experimentally relevant conditions is challenging. In…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-05-23 Kacper Prech , Joël Aschwanden , Patrick P. Potts

Thermodynamic uncertainty relations quantify how the signal-to-noise ratio of a given observable is constrained by dissipation. Fluctuation relations generalize the second law of thermodynamics to stochastic processes. We show that any…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2019-11-26 Patrick P. Potts , Peter Samuelsson

Using a mechanical cantilever submitted to electrostatic feedback control, we investigate the thermodynamic properties of an information engine that extracts work from thermal fluctuations. The cantilever position is rapidly sampled and the…

Thermodynamics establishes that information acquired through measurement can be converted into work, as exemplified by Maxwell's demon and Szilard engines. Most experimental realizations of information engines, however, implicitly assume…

Soft Condensed Matter · Physics 2026-03-09 Lokesh Muruga , Felix Ginot , Sarah A. M. Loos , Clemens Bechinger

We establish the fluctuation theorem in the presence of information exchange between a nonequilibrium system and other degrees of freedom such as an observer and a feedback controller, where the amount of information exchange is added to…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2015-06-05 Takahiro Sagawa , Masahito Ueda

In Szilard's engine, a demon measures a one-particle gas and applies feedback to extract work from thermal fluctuations, embodying Maxwell's notion that information reduces thermodynamic entropy - an apparent second-law violation. The…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2025-08-26 Xiangjun Xing

In 1929, Leo Szilard invented a feedback protocol in which a hypothetical intelligence called Maxwell's demon pumps heat from an isothermal environment and transduces it to work. After an intense controversy that lasted over eighty years;…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2012-02-21 Shoichi Toyabe , Takahiro Sagawa , Masahito Ueda , Eiro Muneyuki , Masaki Sano

Information plays a pivotal role in the thermodynamics of nonequilibrium processes with feedback. However, much remains to be learned about the nature of information fluctuations in small scale devices and their relation with fluctuations…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2016-12-21 Martin Luc Rosinberg , Jordan M. Horowitz

The relation between the work performed to a system and the change of its free energy during a certain process is important in nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. In particular, the work relation with measurement and feedback control has…

Statistical Mechanics · Physics 2018-11-26 Hideyuki Miyahara , Kazuyuki Aihara

Maxwell's demon explores the role of information in physical processes. Employing information about microscopic degrees of freedom, this "intelligent observer" is capable of compensating entropy production (or extracting work), apparently…

In this paper, we analyze the relationship between entropy and information in the context of the mixing process of two identical ideal gases. We will argue that entropy has a special information-based feature that is enfolded in the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2015-06-26 Afshin Shafiee , Majid Karimi

In view of the relation between information and thermodynamics we investigate how much information about an external protocol can be stored in the memory of a stochastic measurement device given an energy budget. We consider a layered…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2015-07-28 Stefano Bo , Marco Del Giudice , Antonio Celani

The gedanken experiment of Maxwell's demon has led to the studies concerning the foundations of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. The demon measures fluctuations of a system's observable and converts the information gain into work…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2018-05-09 Y. Masuyama , K. Funo , Y. Murashita , A. Noguchi , S. Kono , Y. Tabuchi , R. Yamazaki , M. Ueda , Y. Nakamura