The structure of amorphous, crystalline and liquid GeO2

Germanium dioxide ($GeO_2$) is a chemical analogue of $SiO_2$. Furthermore, it is also to some extent a structural analogue, as the low and high-pressure short-range order (tetrahedral and octahedral) is the same. However, a number of differences exist. For example, the $GeO_2$ phase diagram exhibits a smaller number of polymorphs, and all three $GeO_2$ phases (crystalline, glass, liquid) have an increased sensitivity to pressure, undergoing pressure induced changes at much lower pressures than their equivalent $SiO_2$ analogues. In addition, differences exist in $GeO_2$ glass in the medium range order, resulting in the glass transition temperature of germania being much lower than for silica. This review highlights the structure of amorphous $GeO_2$ by different experimental (e.g., Raman and NMR spectroscopy, neutron and x-ray diffraction) and theoretical methods (e.g., classical molecular dynamics, ab initio calculations). It also addresses the structure of liquid and crystalline $GeO_2$ that have received much less attention. Furthermore, we compare and contrast the structural differences between $GeO_2$ and $SiO_2$, as well as, along the $GeO_2-SiO_2$ join. It is probably a very timely review as interest in this compound, that can be investigated in the liquid state at relatively low temperatures and pressures, continues to increase.