Electron cryo-tomography (cryo-ET) enables 3D imaging of complex, radiation-sensitive structures with molecular detail. However, image contrast from the interference of scattered electrons is nonlinear with atomic density and multiple scattering further complicates interpretation. These effects degrade resolution, particularly in conventional reconstruction algorithms, which assume linearity. Particle averaging can reduce such issues but is unsuitable for heterogeneous or dynamic samples ubiquitous in biology, chemistry, and materials sciences. Here, we develop a phase retrieval-based cryo-ET method, PhaseT3M. We experimentally demonstrate its application to a ~7 nm Co3O4 nanoparticle on ~30 nm carbon substrate, achieving a maximum resolution of 1.6 {\AA}, surpassing conventional limits using standard cryo-TEM equipment. PhaseT3M uses a multislice model for multiple scattering and Bayesian optimization for alignment and computational aberration correction, with a positivity constraint to recover 'missing wedge' information. Applied directly to biological particles, it enhances resolution and reduces artifacts, establishing a new standard for routine 3D imaging of complex, radiation-sensitive materials.
@article{arxiv.2504.16332,
title = {PhaseT3M: 3D Imaging at 1.6 {\AA} Resolution via Electron Cryo-Tomography with Nonlinear Phase Retrieval},
author = {Juhyeok Lee and Samuel W. Song and Min Gee Cho and Georgios Varnavides and Stephanie M. Ribet and Colin Ophus and Mary C. Scott and Michael L. Whittaker},
journal= {arXiv preprint arXiv:2504.16332},
year = {2026}
}