Noether charge astronomy

Noether's theorem identifies fundamental conserved quantities, called Noether charges, from a Hamiltonian. To-date Noether charges remain largely elusive within theories of gravity: We do not know how to directly measure them, and their physical interpretation remains unsettled in general spacetimes. Here we show that the surface gravity as naturally defined for a family of observers in arbitrarily dynamical spacetimes is a directly measurable Noether charge. This Noether charge reduces to the accepted value on stationary horizons, and, when integrated over a closed surface, yields an energy with the characteristics of gravitating mass. Stokes' theorem then identifies the gravitating energy density as the time-component of a locally conserved Noether current in general spacetimes. Our conclusion, that this Noether charge is extractable from astronomical observations, holds the potential for determining the detailed distribution of the gravitating mass in galaxies, galaxy clusters and beyond.