Newton numbers, vanishing polytopes and algebraic degrees

Consider a polynomial $f$ with a convenient Newton polytope $P$ and generic complex coefficients. By the global version of the Kouchnirenko formula, the hypersurface $\{f = 0\} \subset \mathbb{C}^n$ has the homotopy type of a bouquet of $(n-1)$-spheres, and the number of spheres is given by a certain alternating sum of volumes, called the Newton number $\nu(P)$. Using the Furukawa-Ito classification of dual defective sets, we classify convenient Newton polytopes with vanishing Newton numbers as certain Cayley sums called $B_k$-polytopes. These $B_k$-polytopes generalize the $B_1$- and $B_2$-facets appearing in the local monodromy conjecture in the Newton non-degenerate case. Our classification provides a partial solution to Arnold's monotonicity problem. The local $h^*$-polynomial (or $\ell^*$-polynomial) is a natural invariant of lattice polytopes that refines the $h^*$-polynomial coming from Ehrhart theory. We obtain decomposition formulas for the Newton number, for instance, prove the inequality $\nu(P) \ge \ell^*(P;1)$. The $B_k$-polytopes are non-trivial examples of thin polytopes. We generalize the Newton number in two independent ways: the $\ell$-Newton number and the $e$-Newton number. The $\ell$-Newton number comes from Ehrhart theory, namely, from certain generalizations of Katz-Stapledon decomposition formulas, and its properties are central to our proof that the $B_k$-polytopes are thin. The $e$-Newton number is the number of points of zero-dimensional critical complete intersections. Vanishing of the $e$-Newton number characterizes dual defective sets. Furthermore, the $e$-Newton number calculates algebraic degrees (such as Maximum Likelihood, Euclidean Distance and Polar degrees). For instance, we show that all known formulas for these algebraic degrees in the Newton non-degenerate case are implied by basic properties of the $e$-Newton number.