Invariant forms on irreducible modules of simple algebraic groups

Let $G$ be a simple linear algebraic group over an algebraically closed field $K$ of characteristic $p \geq 0$ and let $V$ be an irreducible rational $G$-module with highest weight $\lambda$. When $V$ is self-dual, a basic question to ask is whether $V$ has a non-degenerate $G$-invariant alternating bilinear form or a non-degenerate $G$-invariant quadratic form. If $p \neq 2$, the answer is well known and easily described in terms of $\lambda$. In the case where $p = 2$, we know that if $V$ is self-dual, it always has a non-degenerate $G$-invariant alternating bilinear form. However, determining when $V$ has a non-degenerate $G$-invariant quadratic form is a classical problem that still remains open. We solve the problem in the case where $G$ is of classical type and $\lambda$ is a fundamental highest weight $\omega_i$, and in the case where $G$ is of type $A_l$ and $\lambda = \omega_r + \omega_s$ for $1 \leq r < s \leq l$. We also give a solution in some specific cases when $G$ is of exceptional type. As an application of our results, we refine Seitz's $1987$ description of maximal subgroups of simple algebraic groups of classical type. One consequence of this is the following result. If $X < Y < \operatorname{SL}(V)$ are simple algebraic groups and $V \downarrow X$ is irreducible, then one of the following holds: (1) $V \downarrow Y$ is not self-dual; (2) both or neither of the modules $V \downarrow Y$ and $V \downarrow X$ have a non-degenerate invariant quadratic form; (3) $p = 2$, $X = \operatorname{SO}(V)$, and $Y = \operatorname{Sp}(V)$.