Finding effective prompts for language models (LMs) is critical yet notoriously difficult: the prompt space is combinatorially large, rewards are sparse due to expensive target-LM evaluation. Yet, existing RL-based prompt optimizers often rely on on-policy updates and a meta-prompt sampled from a fixed distribution, leading to poor sample efficiency. We propose GFlowPO, a probabilistic prompt optimization framework that casts prompt search as a posterior inference problem over latent prompts regularized by a meta-prompted reference-LM prior. In the first step, we fine-tune a lightweight prompt-LM with an off-policy Generative Flow Network (GFlowNet) objective, using a replay-based training policy that reuses past prompt evaluations to enable sample-efficient exploration. In the second step, we introduce Dynamic Memory Update (DMU), a training-free mechanism that updates the meta-prompt by injecting both (i) diverse prompts from a replay buffer and (ii) top-performing prompts from a small priority queue, thereby progressively concentrating the search process on high-reward regions. Across few-shot text classification, instruction induction benchmarks, and question answering tasks, GFlowPO consistently outperforms recent discrete prompt optimization baselines.
@article{arxiv.2602.03358,
title = {GFlowPO: Generative Flow Network as a Language Model Prompt Optimizer},
author = {Junmo Cho and Suhan Kim and Sangjune An and Minsu Kim and Dong Bok Lee and Heejun Lee and Sung Ju Hwang and Hae Beom Lee},
journal= {arXiv preprint arXiv:2602.03358},
year = {2026}
}