English

Extension of tetration to real and complex heights

Classical Analysis and ODEs 2025-10-30 v4

Abstract

The continuous tetrational function xr=τ(r,x){^x}r=\tau(r,x), the unique solution of equation τ(r,x)=rτ(r,x1)\tau(r,x)=r^{\tau(r,x-1)} and its differential equation τ(r,x)=qτ(r,x)τ(r,x1)\tau'(r,x) =q \tau(r,x) \tau'(r,x-1), is given explicitly as xr=exprx+1[{x}]q{^x}r=\exp_{r}^{\lfloor x \rfloor+1}[\{x\}]_q, where xx is a real variable called height, rr is a real constant called base, {x}=xx\{x\}=x-\lfloor x \rfloor is the sawtooth function, x\lfloor x \rfloor is the floor function of xx, and [{x}]q=(q{x}1)/(q1)[\{x\}]_q=(q^{\{x\}}-1)/(q-1) is a q-analog of {x}\{x\} with q=lnrq=\ln r, respectively. Though xr{^x}r is continuous at every point in the real rxr-x plane, extensions to complex heights and bases have limited domains. The base rr can be extended to the complex plane if and only if xZx\in \mathbb{Z}. On the other hand, the height xx can be extended to the complex plane at (x)Z\Re(x)\notin \mathbb{Z}. Therefore rr and xx in xr{^x}r cannot be complex values simultaneously. Tetrational laws are derived based on the explicit formula of xr{^x}r.

Keywords

Cite

@article{arxiv.2105.00247,
  title  = {Extension of tetration to real and complex heights},
  author = {Takeji Ueda},
  journal= {arXiv preprint arXiv:2105.00247},
  year   = {2025}
}

Comments

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