DAWN. I. Simulating the formation and early evolution of stellar clusters with Phantom N-Body
Abstract
Context. Simulating stellar dynamics in a molecular cloud environment is numerically challenging due to the strong coupling between young stars and their surrounding gas, and the large range of length and time scales. Aims. This paper is the first of a suite aimed at investigating the complex early stellar dynamics in star-forming regions. We present a new simulation framework which is the key to generating a larger set of simulations, enabling statistical analysis. Methods. Methods originating from the stellar dynamics community, including regularisation and slowdown methods (SDAR), have been added to the hydrodynamical code Phantom to produce simulations of embedded cluster early dynamics. This is completed by a novel prescription of star formation to initialise stars with a low numerical cost, but in a way that is consistent with the gas distribution. Finally, a prescription for H ii region expansion has been added to model the gas removal. Results. We have run testcase simulations following the dynamical evolution of stellar clusters from the cloud collapse to a few Myr. Our new numerical methods fulfil their function by speeding up the calculation. The N-body dynamics with our novel implementation never appear as a bottleneck. Our first simulations show that massive stars largely impact the star formation process and shape the dynamics of the resulting cluster. Depending on the position of these massive stars and the strength of their feedback, they can prematurely dismantle part of the cloud or trigger a second event of cloud collapse, preferentially forming low-mass stars. This stochastic behaviour confirms the need for statistical studies. Conclusions. Our new Phantom N-Body framework enables efficient simulation of the formation and evolution of star clusters. It enables the statistical analysis needed to build models of the dynamical evolution of embedded star clusters.
Cite
@article{arxiv.2508.05296,
title = {DAWN. I. Simulating the formation and early evolution of stellar clusters with Phantom N-Body},
author = {Yann Bernard and Estelle Moraux and Daniel J. Price and Frédérique Motte and Fabien Louvet and Isabelle Joncour},
journal= {arXiv preprint arXiv:2508.05296},
year = {2025}
}