Characterisation of rough-wall drag in compressible turbulent boundary layers

In compressible turbulent boundary layers (TBLs), roughness drag is typically characterised by first applying a velocity transformation to account for compressibility, after which the momentum deficit $\Delta U^+$ (Hama, 1954) and the equivalent sand-grain roughness $k_s$ are inferred. In practice, $k_s$ is often obtained from measurements at a single Mach number $M$ and Reynolds number $Re$, effectively forcing the roughness into the $\Delta U^+$--$\log(k_s)$ relation of Nikuradse (1933). This raises a key question: if a rough surface has a known $k_s$ in incompressible flow, under what conditions can this value be used in compressible flows? This question is explored using data obtained through a series of experiments of TBLs on rough walls (P60- and P24-grit sandpapers) over $0.3 \leq M \leq 2.9$ and $7427 \leq Re_{\tau} \leq 30292$, including independent variation of $Re_{\tau}$ at $M=2$. Results show that $\Delta U^+$ is largely insensitive to the velocity transformation, but the fully rough regime exhibits a Mach-number-dependent shift in the logarithmic relation. Three empirical scalings are examined: an equivalent incompressible $k_s$, a viscosity-scaled roughness $k_{*} = k/\nu_\infty^+$ with $\nu_\infty^+ = \nu_\infty/\nu_w$, and a correction factor $\sqrt{1/F_c}$ where $F_c$ depends on $T_\infty/T_w$. The last provides the most consistent improvement across datasets, although all corrections remain empirical and rely on smooth-wall compressibility transformations. This paves the way for future work to develop custom transformation for a rough-wall TBL that can account for roughness properties and other parameters including wall conditions.